A World of Languages

Growing up in the United States, it can be easy to forget that billions of people in the world speak no English at all. But with the World Cup in full swing, the diversity of our planet’s inhabitants is more visible than usual. Beyond opening up new avenues of communication, what are the benefits of learning another language?

Mastering a language can have powerful neural effects. Studies have suggested that students who master a second language also show increased cognitive control overall, which could lead to improved focus and executive function (e.g. Bak et al.,  Anderson et al.). Since language learning, even more than most other learning, requires daily habits of practice and different modes of study to be effective, it is also a great space for practicing the skills and tools that will empower students across the curriculum. 

Elements of many languages will also improve a student’s understanding of English, for at least two reasons. First, since many commonly learned languages share etymological roots with English, which blends Germanic and Latinate ancestry, learning vocabulary in a new language can simultaneously strengthen vocabulary in a student’s native tongue. Second, the process of learning a new language requires students to think more explicitly about grammar -- the parts of a sentence, verb/pronoun agreement, direct and indirect objects -- in a way that can improve their written and spoken English as well. This new understanding of the mechanics of grammar is part of the reason why students who learn one foreign language are able to add another much more easily. 

There are many digital platforms for language learners to explore, and the all-important element of interaction in the chosen language is already often available remotely. Tutors can guide students through a curriculum while making explicit the grammar and executive function skills they should be picking up along the way. Adding some form of challenge and/or incentive structure can make the experience both fun and effective, as students learn to describe and navigate the world around them through an entirely new linguistic framework. 

Learning Vocabulary

Vocabulary sometimes gets a bad rap—and with good reason. Historically, students learned vocabulary by memorizing the spelling and definitions of long lists of words. Their teacher would quiz them on it, then they would usually never use those words again. But when it’s done right, vocabulary instruction can be an instrumental part of a student’s journey toward reading mastery. So what are the components of good vocabulary instruction and why do they matter?

Orthographic Mapping

We’ve been over orthographic mapping before, but here’s a quick refresher. Orthographic mapping is the process by which students match the sounds in words to the symbols that represent those sounds. Instead of memorizing the spelling of long lists of words, the most efficient way to actually learn new words is through repeated decoding. Experts agree that it takes most neurotypical readers 1-4 times to solidify words into memory in this way. Once the spelling of a word has been solidified, the student can recall that spelling when needed.

Affixes and Root Words

Once students understand that most words consist of parts (like affixes), it becomes much easier for them to learn to segment those words. The most efficient approach to learning the meaning of multisyllabic words is to first learn the meaning of common prefixes and suffixes. Students then use the meaning of these short chunks to deduce the meaning of the larger words in which they appear. This takes far less time and effort than memorizing spellings and meanings of entire multisyllabic words in isolation.

Book Embedded Vocabulary Instruction

When students learn new vocabulary, the best way to teach it is through context. Book embedded vocabulary instruction is a strategy in which teachers strategically select targeted vocabulary words from a text before students read it. Teachers choose words that students are less likely to know and that are important to their understanding of the text. Before reading, students preview the vocabulary words, including a student-friendly definition and some examples. Then they immediately hear or see them in the context of the reading, where they are able to further deepen their understanding of the words based on the context in which they appear.

Multi-sensory Vocabulary Instruction

There are vocabulary words that inevitably need to be taught explicitly, such as domain-specific words in Math or Science. The most effective ways to teach these words is through a multisensory approach. Merely presenting the word with a definition is not enough. In order to gain a thorough understanding of any new vocabulary words, students need examples, anecdotes, visuals, and plenty of opportunity for practice. This could mean using the word in writing or actually applying the word to a process or practice. 

When students are able to learn and interact with new vocabulary words through frequent and dynamic activities like the ones listed above, they are most likely to make the greatest gains in literacy.

Why do we study History?

There are a thousand and one reasons to study history. You have probably heard the argument that learning about the past can help us to better understand the present and make more informed decisions about the future. History can also help us to understand the human experience, to see how people have dealt with similar challenges in the past, and to appreciate the diversity of cultures and perspectives. Additionally, the strange (and strangely familiar) elements in history can simply be interesting and enjoyable to discover!

There are many different ways to study history that go far beyond your history class. Some people dig deep into history by reading books or articles, since the main way we record information as a society is in text. Others prefer to visit historical sites themselves, or to listen to lectures. Some people study history in order to become historians, while others do it simply for personal interest. No matter why you choose to study history, there are many benefits to be gained from doing so.

While most people who learn about history may end up going on to pursue other things, a select few will become professional historians. This is a noble profession that can be very rewarding. Historians help to preserve our collective memory and to keep us informed about the past. They also help to make the past accessible to everyone, through books, articles, lectures, and tours. Historians might collaborate with museum curators to shape the exhibits that the public will see. They can also conduct original research to uncover new information that changes the way we think about the past.

Other people study history for personal interest. This is a great way to learn about past civilizations and to satisfy your curiosity. It can also be a way to connect with your family history. If you are interested in studying history for personal interest, there are many resources available to you beyond your school curriculum. You can visit historical sites and museums, read books or articles, listen to lectures, or take online classes.

Whether you study history to become a historian or simply for personal interest, the subject offers a wealth of knowledge for everyone. If you’re someone who is primarily interested in science, consider learning more about the history of a technology that fascinates you, or studying the biographies of famous inventors. If you’re a musician, delve into the history of your favorite genre, tracing back the influences of your favorite artists over time. One of the most remarkable things about human civilization is its collective, additive nature; we learn from the experiments of our forebears, both successful and less so, in order to build a future together. So think about that next time you’re sitting in history class, wondering why you need to know about the Treaty of Versailles!

Building Skills Away From School

Children are sponges. Their growing brains have a remarkable capacity to soak in new knowledge, whether they are sitting in a classroom or hanging out at home. Parents intuitively understand that learning doesn’t begin and end in school—so how can they best support student skill development at home? Let’s consider some of the skills you can introduce or sharpen away away from the classroom.

1. Digital Literacy

Some skills are universal. They apply to virtually every subject area, and to students' personal lives as well as academics. Living in the technology-heavy 21st century means that students need to become fluent in digital literacy. This means developing a wide range of skills, all of which have to do with technology. From being able to create digital materials, to evaluating the validity of an article, digital literacy refers to one’s ability to use technology to interact and communicate.

2. Mindfulness

One of the most useful universal skills for anyone is mindfulness. Mindfulness is related to metacognition, or a person’s ability to think about what and how they think. Mindfulness, however, is more involved than metacognition. When someone is being mindful, they are fully aware of what they are doing in the present moment and why. They are able to look at situations objectively and with a clear head, and can avoid becoming overly reactive or emotional. It sounds simple, but it’s surprisingly difficult even for many adults. The more students can practice mindfulness, the stronger they’ll be at self-regulating, avoiding stress, and having healthy and positive day-to-day interactions with others. Guided mindfulness meditations are a great way to begin building this skill.

3. Life Skills

Don’t underestimate the importance of simple life skills like cooking, managing money, and having a basic knowledge of first aid. As schools place more emphasis on reading, writing, math, and technological fluency (all of which are vitally important, we don’t deny it!), students are starting to lose much of their foundational knowledge of things like balanced eating and financial literacy. Take it back to basics at home by helping your child build some of these skills he or she may be lacking.

4. STEM Learning

STEM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math; many schools integrate these four sought-after subjects (some places now offer STEAM classes, which also integrate the Arts). The NASA website has a great resource for at-home STEM exploration, which any "left-brained" thinker will love.

5. Encourage creativity by helping students think outside the box

“Thinking outside the box,” or the ability to problem-solve using creativity and critical thinking, isn’t something students learn easily. There aren’t any one-off lessons that will instantly turn a child into a critical thinker. But there are ways we can help students to build those skills over time. Encourage independent play. Set your children up with projects, even if it just means giving them a pile of clean recyclables and challenging them to build something. Most importantly, be careful how you respond to the way your child approaches a task. We are often quick to correct our children when they “color outside the lines,” both literally and figuratively. Just because children don’t execute a task the way we expect them to doesn’t mean they are doing it “wrong.” Be careful what you correct. Those times when children approach a task differently are often the times they grow the most cognitively!

6. Prioritize play (looks different at different ages and grades)

Everyone knows that play is important for all ages. But not all play is created equal! Educational play looks very different for a preschooler than it does for a high schooler, but both are equally beneficial. Playing video games is not going to be as useful for a kid's brain as playing a game that requires strategy and organization. At the same time, not all video games are bad! It’s important that some of your child’s downtime be spent engaged in educational “play," but be proactive in monitoring and guiding what that play looks like.

7. Don't double dose "dry" academics

One of the best-intentioned but least productive ways to support kids with their learning is to just make them do more of what they already find boring. This is not going to make them learn it any faster or any better, and is more likely to actually frustrate them more! Instead, if there are subjects that your child is either struggling with or dislikes, try to help them find a "way in." If your child hates math but loves sports, take their math work outside and play a game of math soccer. Or change all their word problems to be sports-related. Supporting academics at home should be about piquing interest and fueling curiosity, not piling on the work!

The Homework Debate

Homework remains a hot-button issue. The science is inconclusive—predictably, some studies demonstrate a link between homework completion and higher test scores. However, other studies found no significant link between performance and homework completion, which suggests there’s more nuance to the story. At any rate, you probably didn’t need experts to tell you that homework is a contentious issue—one evening of persuading a recalcitrant student to do their work is all the convincing most of us need. 

Quality Matters

The truth is that not all homework is created equal. Teachers may assign homework for a variety of reasons. Good reasons for homework include reinforcing a skill students practiced in class, preparing students for an upcoming lesson (i.e. “flipping the classroom”), and allowing students choice as they apply skills in innovative ways. Problematic reasons for homework include simple compliance measures and the sense that this is what is expected of teachers. Each homework assignment should have a clear rationale and reinforce skills that were already introduced in class. 

The Most Important Type of Homework

Some schools, particularly elementary schools, have already made homework optional or eliminated it altogether. While well-intentioned, this decision may leave families in a bind: how can families create an academic environment at home without painstakingly creating the resources students might have traditionally received in the past? Luckily, it's easier than one might think. Regular reading at home is one of the most effective activities for reinforcing literacy skills.

Exposure to a wide variety of texts that students find inherently interesting will reinforce the reading skills they practice in school throughout their subjects. Ideally, students would read texts in their zone of proximal development (books that present a slight challenge and therefore grow their reading muscles), but any reading will do! Reading at home has the added benefit of involving the family in the academic conversation. Consider facilitating a brief conversation daily so that everyone in the family can share something exciting they read that day. 

The Bottom Line

If homework remains a part of your school’s culture, look for signs that it is tied to the curriculum and provides your child an opportunity for successful engagement rather than a disheartening challenge. If you feel your child's homework may be purposeless, always speak to her teacher first. There may be purpose in it that you aren't aware of! And if your child is struggling unnecessarily, make sure his teacher knows that as well. They might be able to help by altering the assignment, or giving you the tools to help from home. In all cases, creating a reading culture at home will reinforce good academic habits and encourage a love for learning that can last a lifetime.

Working Smarter (Part 2)

Continuing on from our last post’s breakdown of the reasons that students frequently opt for relatively ineffective study methods, today we will outline a few research-backed learning strategies that any student can adopt instead. So far, we introduced one study reporting that student comprehension dramatically increased (an 86% bump) when they created their own summary of lecture slides, rather than just reviewing the original slides. Understanding why that increase is so significant helps illuminate other, similar strategies that students should employ. 

The key to the success of summarizing, and of each of the below strategies, is that learning that lasts requires some form of active cognitive resistance. In other words, you have to give your brain something to actively do with the content, not just skimming the surface by reading it off a page. Reorganizing the information, picking out the main ideas and articulating it in your own words, causes your brain to integrate that knowledge into its preexisting schema. These strategies all share a common theme—that is, meaningful engagement with the material—and cover a variety of modalities to suit different learning styles. It’s also worth noting that combining modalities by using more than one strategy in combination will only help students increase their understanding and retention. 

Better study strategies:

• Ask Questions: 

  • Students should be encouraged not just to engage with comprehension questions in a textbook, but to write their own. According to Mirjam Ebersbach (2020), “students who studied a lesson and then wrote their own questions outperformed students who simply restudied the material by 33 percent.” It’s also a great way for students to go about predicting what they might be asked on test day, giving structure to their studying. The best will go beyond yes/no or fill-in-the-blank-with-facts type questions, to get at the significant theme or takeaway and make connections to earlier material. Students should aim to start their questions with “Explain/why/how/to what extent” etc, and teachers can provide a list of such question starters at the beginning of the year.

• Create visual representations: 

  • Concept maps and graphic organizers are a powerful way to stimulate learning, since they encourage students to create categories, (literally) draw connections, and put their thoughts in order. The type of schematic macrostructure these visual representations create is significantly more effective than note-taking in an undefined list structure. 

• Draw your work: 

  • Relatedly, drawing is a remarkably powerful way to combine modalities and increase retention. According to a study from Myra Fernandes, students are twice as likely to remember vocabulary words they draw. That’s because drawing brings together visual memory (what did it look like), semantic memory (what did it mean), and kinesthetic memory (what did it feel like to draw). And you don’t have to draw well to generate this positive outcome! Just draw. 

• Teachers learn best: 

  • Another way to ensure that students will meaningfully engage with the material is to give them a teaching role. This role might draw on other strategies as well by requiring them to summarize, to create visual representations, and to generate questions. Teachers can institute a “three before me” rule, encouraging students to seek help from three peers before coming to a teacher, or use “think-pair-share” to have students work together to understand an issue and then teach it to the class. Jigsaw groups are another innovative option—students are each given information about one aspect of a new concept, and then they discuss their area with the group to assemble the ‘puzzle.’

Working Smarter (Part 1)

Teachers make daily choices about how to structure their students’ learning — and students themselves often have a significant amount of individual control over which tools and strategies they will use to break down readings, study for exams, or approach an essay. But research collected by Edutopia suggests that a majority of students opt for strategies that yield only superficial results, when more effective and easy to implement alternatives could significantly improve their understanding (Miyahatsu et al., 2018). Today we’ll consider why that is—and in our next post, we’ll go over a few research-backed study strategies that students can use instead. 

Unless teachers require students to study in a specific way, they will generally fall back on rereading sections of the textbook or looking over lecture slides, reviewing flashcards with copy-and-pasted definitions or scanning old notes, according to one study from 2018. And certainly these options are better than not studying at all! But the truth is that while these strategies might require less effort and brainpower than a more active approach, they are significant less effective. A 2021 study from learning scientists Alyssa Lawson and Richard Mayer, for instance, found that students who read a prepared summary of lecture slides rather than just looking over the original slides scored 34% higher, while students who prepared a summary themselves scored a full 86% higher. 

Given the dramatic difference, why don’t all students summarize? 

1. Procrastination: Students who leave studying for the last minute tend to seek out the quickest method, prioritizing short-term memorization over real comprehension. 

2. Lack of true understanding: In order to create a summary, students must digest and rephrase the elements of the original material they’re trying to master—that’s why it’s so effective as a study tool. But if a student doesn’t really understand the material, and doesn’t have the skills (or time—see procrastination) to get to understanding, then the best he or she can hope for is memorization of the original. The trouble is that memorizing a formula or definiton might feel like understanding, but when a question appears on the test that asks students to use that formula or consider the implications of that definition in combination with other elements, memorization falls short—and even students who could perfectly recite their notes the night before are caught out. 

3. Lack of metacognitive awareness: Students often don’t know that their methods are ineffective, or that a better way exists! Not everyone spends their free time reading learning science articles, after all—and popular representations of studying in films and television look more like cramming behind stacks of books than writing out new summaries. Students can spend hours flipping through slides or skimming back over a textbook and feel like they’re working hard, but miss out on true comprehension. We want them to think a little more about how they learn best, so they can choose the methods that work best for them—that’s metacognition. 

So to intervene in this pattern we should incentivize (or require) studying further ahead of an exam, give students the tools to reach true understanding, and offer a research-backed picture of just how these tools differ from the ones they’re using now. To that end, we will dig more into alternative strategies and what makes them effective in our next post.

Words to Grow a Growth Mindset

The way we think about ourselves as learners directly impacts our performance. If we think we’re capable, we become capable. If we think we can’t do something, we probably won’t even try. This applies especially to students, who often hear messages that reinforce a “fixed mindset”– a concept of self defined by the idea that one’s strengths, challenges, and abilities are predetermined, “fixed,” and simply a part of our nature. When grades are the only tangible reward students get for their learning, it can be hard to use anything else as a metric for success. Even in the lower grades, students often earn points, cute smiley faces, or even little tchotchkes when they get or do something right. This is how they know if they are on the right track. It’s also usually how a student’s fixed mindset begins.

What are growth and fixed mindsets?

When your kid comes home, beaming about the A she got on her test, but unable to tell you anything she learned—that behavior is the result of a fixed mindset. When she comes home the next day with a C on a paper filled with helpful comments on how to improve next time, then immediately throws it in the garbage, this is another product of a fixed mindset. With a fixed mindset, one believes that one’s inherent intelligence, talents, and value are unchangeable, and that successes and failures in school and in life are a reflection of abilities and not efforts. Fixed mindsets are made, not born, and they are unfortunately all-too common in students.

A growth mindset, on the other hand, comes with the belief that one can always improve if they put in the effort. For a student, actually practicing a growth mindset is easier said than done. It requires the child in the example above to not only be proud of the A she got on her test, but to think about how she might further apply the knowledge that she worked so hard to demonstrate. It also means reading the comments on that less-than-perfect paper, taking them to heart, and applying them to her next piece of writing. A growth mindset not only requires one to work harder, it also requires the emotionally difficult task of looking at one’s mistakes head-on in an attempt to strengthen areas of weakness. This level of self-awareness is hard for adults and sometimes impossible for students, especially when not facilitated by a teacher.

Why is a Growth Mindset Important?

Believing that we can grow and develop our skills is directly related to our learning and how we interact with the world around us. If we all believed that our potential was fixed, there would be no patience or compassion for when others fall short. We wouldn’t feel the desire or motivation to seek out potential or root for the underdog. The course of one’s life would become painfully predictable. But thankfully, we weren’t built that way! Everyone can grow and improve when they apply themselves.

How do I help my child develop a growth mindset?

Start by changing the language you use at home. This chart gives helpful replacement language for some of the (well-meaning) things we often say to our kids:

And encourage them to use “growth mindset” language with themselves, too:

Finally, read your children stories of people who persevered and overcame adversity with their growth mindsets, and model a growth mindset yourself. Choose something you think you’re bad at, change the narrative you tell yourself, and watch yourself improve. They’ll follow your example!

Links Between Reading and Writing

As students develop and hone their writing skills, they become more competent readers. Their ability to think critically about text and interact with it in rich and meaningful ways improves. The opposite is also true. The more we read, the better our writing becomes. That’s because the processes of reading and writing are undeniably connected. One could view them as the inverses of each other, and while they use different skills, growth in one invariably strengthens the other.

“Reading as a Writer”

An effective way to help students see the link between reading and writing is to teach them how to “read as a writer.” This means not only practicing regular reading skills like fluency and comprehension, but actually analyzing how the text itself was written. Students do this by looking for choices the author made, devices they used in their writing, and how they structured their writing. When students read text through this lens, they get more out of their reading, and they deepen their knowledge of choices they themselves can make as a writer.

“Writing as a Reader”

Just like we should read books looking for the writer’s moves, we can also write with our readers in mind. When we “write as a reader,” we keep our focus on how our writing will be received, whether it will make sense, and what message it sends. So often, emerging writers write with one intention, but they end up writing something that has a completely different effect. When writers think about their readers as they write, they are more likely to end up leaving their readers with what they intended.

Writing About Reading

A great way to integrate reading and writing in the classroom is to have students write about the books they read. Writing about one’s reading helps them to process what they’ve read and practice crucial writing skills. There are so many ways to get students to write about their reading:

• Answer open-ended questions/prompts about the text

• Write a sequel/prequel

• Continue the story

• Write a letter or journal entry as a character

• Write a news article about an event (real or imaginary)

• Ask and answer questions as they read

• Teach them how to annotate text

Not only are there lots of ways to integrate reading and writing instruction, but doing so will set your students up for success. They’ll become much more confident and competent readers and writers when the two subject areas are integrated.

Managing Summer Homework

The summer homework scramble is a tradition many parents know well. The limitless amount of time we think lies ahead seems to suddenly disappear. At some point, it hits us that school starts soon and that summer homework is still at the bottom of the backpack. But it doesn’t have to be this way! Here are some tips for helping kids manage their summer homework so that it isn’t all crammed into the last week of summer.

Create a Schedule, Write it Down, Post it Clearly

Constant reminders that your child has homework won’t convince them to get it done. Lots of kids need help knowing when to do it, not just that they need to. Work with them on creating a schedule for completing whatever their homework is in small steps. It’s important that you help them break it down as this can be a difficult skill for kids. If they are faced with the entirety of the task each time they sit down to it, their motivation will be sapped pretty quickly. So help them to look at the task in smaller, bite-sized pieces so they don’t get overwhelmed.

If the homework is a packet of worksheets or tasks that are already somewhat compartmentalized, then breaking it down will be incredibly easy. If it’s a larger, more cumulative task like an essay or project, your child will likely need help creating those smaller steps. Once the breakdown and schedule have been created, make sure to post it somewhere visible. Your child should be able to easily access and refer to it in order to stay on track.

Talk About it Ahead of Time

Before you actually sit down and create the homework plan with your child, give her a head’s up that it’ll be happening. Some kids have a lot of anxiety when it comes to completing homework, especially long-term assignments. They will feel more at ease if you give them some notice that the conversation will be happening. They'll also be more ready for it when it comes. Just be sure to schedule it for a specific time well in advance—not just "sometime soon."

Use Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement (focusing on what the child is doing right) is such a powerful disciplinary tool. But many parents automatically resort to punishment (focusing on what the child is doing wrong). This is understandable! It’s easier and a lot more convenient to identify something to take away. But when it comes to homework, as well as many other things kids struggle with, positive reinforcement is so much more likely to work effectively than punishment. If a student knows that ice cream or an hour of video game time awaits him at the other side of his work, he will be a lot more excited to do it than he would be with the threat of having something taken away. It’s all in how you frame it to the child.

Take an Interest

Show your students that you care about the work they complete and turn in. Not just that they do it, but the content, too. In addition to pushing them to improve, also be sure to point out all the hard work you’ve noticed them doing and give specific praise around what you think they’ve done well. Ask them questions about their work. If they sense your genuine curiosity to know more about what they’re learning, doing, or creating, they’re more likely to invest energy in it themselves.